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covid-19

The unfinished skill training of India’s women: Bridging gender-based skill gaps to enhance women’s employment

by Guest Author 08/12/2024

written by Guest Author

Authors: Mitali Nikore, Khyati Bhatnagar, Priyal Mundhra

Research assistance: Ishita Upadhyay, Girish Sharma, Shruti Jha

India’s growing economy needs 103 million skilled workers between 2017-2022. Yet, over 100 million Indian youth (15-29 years) are not in education, employment or training (NEET), of which around 88.5 million are young women. The proportion of working-age women receiving any form of vocational training over the past decade has been increasing from 6.8% in 2011-12 to 6.9% in 2018-19, vs. an increase from 14.6% to 15.7% for men.

Furthermore, there is a concentration of women trainees in non-engineering, labour-intensive sectors and job roles. Under the flagship Prime Minister Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) for short-term skilling, although women comprised 49.9% of enrolled candidates over 2016-2020, they remained concentrated in traditional, “feminised” sectors such as beauty, apparel and healthcare, and almost entirely excluded from high technology or more mechanised sectors. Between 2014-19, women comprised 17% of enrolment at Industrial Training Institutes (ITI). Women formed only 4.3% of enrollments in engineering trades vs 54.7% in non- engineering trades.

Source: NSDC Analysis, June 2020

In this context, prolonged closures of education and skilling facilities during the COVID-19 pandemic are creating new barriers, especially for young women trying to enter the labour force. Between September 2020 to May 2021, Nikore Associates undertook consultations with over 60 stakeholders belonging to community-based organisations (CBOs), academic institutions, government agencies, women-led self-help groups (SHGs), and corporates to understand these barriers.

1. Gender-based digital divide: During COVID-19, several CBOs switched to online and Whatsapp-based skill training modules. However, in 2020, 25% of India’s adult female population owned a smartphone vs. 41% of men. Consultations showed that owing to lower ownership of smartphones, unfamiliarity with phone features, high data costs, and lower priority being accorded to women’s skill training, several women and adolescent girls dropped out of training. In one example of this, a Mumbai based NGO shared that large family sizes necessitated phone-sharing. Coupled with financial constraints which limited the purchase of internet packages, women’s enrolment in their online skill training courses had fallen.

2. Unpaid work: Indian women were already spending an average of 5 hours per day on unpaid care work, vs. 30 minutes spent by men pre-COVID-19. Nearly 45% of women’s unpaid work is centered around childcare, and the unavailability of creche facilities at skill centers deters women with caregiving responsibilities from joining. Consultations across social groups revealed that the presence of male relatives and children at home due to closure of workplaces and schools led to an increase in care work. For instance, an SHG mobiliser in Telangana shared that the women in her community were unable to attend trainings and SHG meetings owing to domestic work.

3. Commuting options and mobility restrictions: Even before COVID-19, 28.3% of women enrolled in ITIs cited difficulty in commuting as their reason for withdrawing from skill training. Lockdown measures disrupted public transport services, increased the risk of gendered violence in empty public spaces, and heightened mobility restrictions for women. For instance, a Manipur-based CBO shared that even after lockdowns eased and training centers re-opened, women were unable to re-join trainings as they did not have a means to commute.

4. Social norms. In a pre-COVID-19 survey, 58% of female trainees cited marriage, 21% cited family issues, and another 7.5% cited family perception of ITIs being more suited for males as major reasons dropping out of skill training programs. Consultations show that with COVID-19, families have become even more reluctant to allow young women to step out for training. For instance, a Delhi-based CBO conducting training for women to take up cab-driving saw much higher resistance from families post COVID-19.

5. Wage gaps and low likelihood of employment post training: Even after training, women’s likelihood of obtaining a job was lower than men. About 46.9% of women who received formal vocational training did not enter the labour force, vs. 12.7% of men (NSSO 2019). An analysis of data from 64 ITIs shows that only 25.6% of female trainees received job offers in 2018-19. In a survey of employers, 50% of MSMEs and 32% of large companies expressed a reluctance to employ women owing to the need to ensuring their security, risks with involving them in heavy manual labour, and their interest in working in closer proximity to their homes. Women also suffer gendered wage gaps. Between 1993-2018, the average wages for female casual workers in urban settings stood at ~63% of the male wage. Consultations showed that during COVID-19, these gender-biases could worsen, especially across small businesses owing to repeated macroeconomic shocks and working capital constraints.

The Government of India (GOI) has recognized women as a priority group under the Skill India Mission. Further, the GOI’s recent announcement to conduct a tracer study to gauge the impact of PMKVY on female labour force participation is a much-needed intervention to understand the correlation between skill development and employability for women.

As the country moves on to a medium-term path of economic recovery post-COVID19, several additional measures can be considered by the GOI to encourage government and private training providers to undertake gender-inclusive skilling interventions.

The GOI could formulate an incentives-based approach with gender targets for all courses under its National Skill Qualification Framework (NSQF). Reward mechanisms can be created such that training partners become eligible for additional financial support if new modules are devised for women’s training, or if there is an increase in enrolment and placement of female candidates, especially in non-traditional trades.

A composite national and state level ranking of skilling institutes should be devised to assess gender mainstreaming efforts, including increasing awareness, recruiting female faculty and offering counselling services for female candidates and potential employers.

There is also an urgent need to create gender sensitive infrastructure at skill training institutions, with procurement standards of private training partners under government schemes mandating separate washrooms, strict security, balanced gender ratio of trainers and the provision of safe transport. Gender sensitive infrastructure should be standardized across all government and private skilling institutes.

A host of long-term structural barriers, such as occupational segregation, the income effect of rising household-incomes, and increased mechanization, which when combined with increased unpaid work, growing gender disparities in education, and heightened mobility restrictions due to the pandemic, have intensified the challenges of bringing women back to work. Thus, bridging the gender gaps in skill training and making women ready for a digitized, technology-driven post-COVID-19 workplace, should be a priority for GOI.

08/12/2024 0 comments 25 views

लड़कियों की शिक्षा पर कोरोना का प्रभाव

by Rajesh Singh 08/12/2024

written by Rajesh Singh

By Rajesh Singh

कोरोना महामारी के चलते जब सारे शैक्षणिक संस्थान बन्द है तब शिक्षा का जो स्वरूप बदला है, वह ना तो हमारे देश के छात्रों और ना ही छात्राओं के लिए अच्छा है, क्योंकि इसमें ना तो परस्पर क्रिया है और ना ही सहभागिता। यूनेस्को (संयुक्त राष्ट्र शैक्षणिक, वैज्ञानिक एवं सांस्कृतिक संगठन) के अनुसार भारत में लॉकडाउन के कारण लगभग 32 करोड़ छात्र छात्राओं की पढ़ाई रुकी है, जिसमे लगभग 15.81 करोड़ केवल लड़कियां हैं।

कोरोना महामारी से शिक्षण संस्थान मुख्य रूप से स्कूलों के बंद होने से लड़कियों (खासकर ग्रामीण क्षेत्र में रहने वाली) को सबसे ज्यादा नुकसान हुआ है। अब जब स्कूल जाना नहीं तब उन पर घर के कार्यों का बोझ बढ़ा है I हालांकि पहले भी घर के कार्यों में वो अपना योगदान देती थी, परंतु पहले ये होता था कि सुबह स्कूल जाना है, वहां 6 घंटे रहना है, स्कूल से आकर स्कूल का कार्य करना है, इसमें उनका काफी वक्त लग जाता था जिसके चलते उन्हें घर के सारे कार्य नहीं करने पड़ते थे I परंतु अब सुबह से लेकर शाम तक घर का सारा कार्य उन्हें करना पड़ता है I घर में बड़े बुजुर्ग भी ये कहते हैं कि जब स्कूल नहीं जाना तो कम से कम घर के कार्य करने ही सीख जाओ। इसके साथ ही प्राथमिक स्कूल की बच्चियां जिन्होंने अभी स्कूल जाना शुरू किया था, अभी सीखना शुरू किया था,की तरफ किसी का कोई ध्यान नहीं जा रहा, उनका भविष्य अंधकार में धकेला जा रहा है I आमतौर पर जब कोई इंसान कुछ सीखना शुरू करता है तो उसे अभ्यास की ज़रूरत होती है, यदि कोई चीज़ सीखी हो और उसका अभ्यास ना किया जाए तो बहुत जल्दी वो चीज़ भूल भी जाते हैं और बच्चों जिन्होंने अभी अभी सीखना शुरू किया है उनके लिए सीखी हुई चीजों का अभ्यास करना ज्यादा महत्वपूर्ण हैI

परंतु अब जब पिछले 15 महीनों से स्कूल बंद है तब कैसे छोटे बच्चे घर में अभ्यास करें? हो सकता है कि कुछ परिवार अपने बच्चों को प्रतिदिन कुछ पढ़ा कर अभ्यास करवा पाएं पंरतु लगभग 70 फीसदी परिवार ऐसे है जो दिहाड़ी मजदूरी करके अपना और परिवार का पेट पालते हैं, उनके पास इतना वक्त नहीं होता कि वो अपने बच्चों को पढ़ा पाए I इनमे से भी अधिकतर माता पिता खुद अनपढ़ है तो वो कैसे अपने बच्चों को कुछ सीखा पाएंगे और अगर बच्चा लड़की है तो उसपर बिल्कुल ध्यान नहीं दिया जाता I यदि ट्यूशन भी लगाना हो तो आम जन लड़कियों की बजाए लड़कों को ज्यादा तरजीह देते हैं। इसके साथ ही जो लड़कियां कक्षा 9 या 10 में पढ़ती थी उनकी शादियां हो रही है जिससे उन्हें शारीरिक और मानसिक रूप से बड़े बदलाव के दौर में जीना पड़ रहा है।

यूनेस्को की शिक्षा विभाग की सहायक महानिदेशक “स्टेफेनिया गियनिनी” ने पिछले वर्ष कहा था कि इस महामारी के कारण शैक्षणिक संस्थान बंद होना लड़कियों के लिए बीच मे ही पढ़ाई छोड़ने की चेतवानी है। इससे शिक्षा में लैंगिक अंतर जहां और बढ़ेगा वहीं विवाह की कानूनी उम्र से पहले ही लड़कियों की शादी की संभावनाओं से भी इंकार नहीं किया जा सकता है।

सरकार ने हालांकि शिक्षा बिल्कुल ना रुके इसके लिए ऑनलाइन शिक्षा शुरू की, परंतु भारत में पर्याप्त संख्या में ना तो ऑनलाइन शिक्षा के लिए यंत्र हैं और ना ही आम जन के पास इन्हें चलाने की कला। लोकनीति सीएसडीएस ने अपनी 2019 की रिपोर्ट में बताया कि ग्रामीण क्षेत्रो मे केवल 6 फीसदी परिवारों में और शहरी क्षेत्रों में 25 फीसदी परिवारों के पास कंप्यूटर है। और केवल एक तिहाई घरों में ही स्मार्ट फोन है, इसमें भी अधिकतर घरों में एक ही स्मार्टफोन है, जिसे पूरा परिवार प्रयोग करता है, और ये फोन घर के मुख्य व्यक्ति के पास रहता है, वो जब घर होता है तभी बच्चे उसे प्रयोग कर सकते हैं, और बच्चों में भी लड़कियों की बारी लड़कों के बाद में आती है।

राष्ट्रीय प्रतिदर्श सर्वेक्षण कार्यालय ने अपनी 2017-2018 की रिपोर्ट में कहा था कि भारत में केवल 24 फीसदी परिवारों के पास ही इंटरनेट की सुविधा है। अर्थात् 70 फीसदी परिवारों के पास ना तो कंप्यूटर है ना ही स्मार्टफोन और ना ही इंटरनेट और इसके साथ साथ घरों में ना तो पर्याप्त जगह है जहां पर बैठ कर शांति से बच्चे पढ़ सके और ना ही ऐसा माहौल जिसमे कुछ सीखा जा सके तो इस दौर में ऑनलाइन शिक्षा कैसे सम्भव है? सबसे महत्वपूर्ण तथ्य ये भी है कि ग्रामीण परिवेश में रहने वाले अधिकतर लोगों को सोशल मीडिया चलाना ही नहीं आता I दूसरा जो काम स्कूल द्वारा भेजा जाता है उसे बच्चे समझ ही नहीं पाते कि इसे करना कैसे है, उन्हें बताने वाला कोई नहीं है, और फोन जब शाम को घर आता है तब उसकी बैट्री लगभग खत्म होने को होती है और ग्रामीण क्षेत्रों में बिजली भी 24 घंटे उपलब्ध नहीं होती I इस प्रकार ऐसे अनेकों कारण है जिनकी वजह से ग्रामीण बच्चों और खासकर लड़कियों की पढ़ाई छूट रही है। अब उन्हें वापिस मुख्यधारा में लाना अपने आप में एक चुनौती है।

“दिल्ली आईआईटी की प्रोफेसर डॉ. रीतिका खेड़ा ने कहा है कि ऑनलाइन शिक्षा गरीबों के बच्चों के साथ भद्दा मज़ाक है”।

यूनिसेफ ने प्राथमिक शिक्षा को सबसे ज्यादा महत्वपूर्ण व प्रभावशाली बताया है और कहा है कि जब भी लॉकडाउन जैसा कदम उठाना हो तब प्राथमिक स्कूलों को सबसे बाद में बंद करना चाहिए और जब सब कुछ खुलने लगे तो प्राथमिक स्कूलों को ही सबसे पहले खोलना चाहिए। क्यूंकि हम देखते है की घर के बड़े महिला पुरुष अपने अपने कार्यों को करने के लिए बाहर आते जाते रहते हैं इसलिए यदि वायरस आने का उन्हें कोई खतरा नहीं है तो बच्चों को खतरा कैसे हो सकता है। दूसरी सबसे खास बात ये है कि छोटे बच्चों में संक्रमण का खतरा कम है और इसके साथ साथ यदि प्राथमिक स्कूलों को लंबे समय तक बन्द रखा जाता है तो छोटे बच्चे कुछ भी संख्या या शब्दों को सीख नहीं पाएंगे, जिससे आने वाले समय में उन्हें भारी समस्याओं को सामना करना पड़ेगा। परंतु भारत में अब जब सब खुल चुका है तब कक्षा 9 से 12 तक के स्कूल सबसे पहले खुलने शुरू हुए हैं, जबकि होना इसका उल्टा चाहिए था क्यूंकि इन बड़े बच्चों को कम से कम लिखना पढ़ना तो आता ही है इसलिए इनका जितना नुकसान होना था वो हो चुका परंतु छोटे बच्चों का नुकसान तो प्रतिदिन हो रहा है।

और हम देखें कि यदि छोटी बच्चियों को पढ़ने का अवसर नहीं मिला तो निश्चित रूप से उनकी शादी भी कानूनी उम्र से पहले ही होएगी, उसके बाद उन्हें शारीरिक और मानसिक तनाव का सामना भी करना पड़ सकता है और अनपढ़ता के दौर में शादियों में एक लड़की देके दूसरी लड़की लेने का प्रचलन भी बढ़ने की सम्भावना है। इसलिए सरकार को लड़कियों व उनके भविष्य और एक बेहतर भारत के निर्माण को ध्यान में रखते हुए सारे शिक्षण संस्थान खोल देने चाहिए और ऑफलाइन शिक्षा पुन: शुरू करनी चाहिए क्योंकि कोई भी देश लड़कियों को मुख्यधारा में शामिल किए बिना ना तो अपना विकास कर सकता है और ना ही वहां सभ्य समाज का निर्माण हो सकता है।

08/12/2024 0 comments 24 views

Achievements of Women In Olympics, 2020

by Guest Author 08/12/2024

written by Guest Author

Author: Pooja Bhattacharjee

The recently concluded Tokyo Olympics gave people from all over the world a reason to celebrate. Considering the highly anxious environment at the Olympic village as well as the galloping threat of COVID – 19, the women athletes gave a stunning performance. The International Olympic Committee branded the 2020 edition as ‘the first ever gender-balanced Olympic Games in history’ with 49% of the 11,656 athletes being female. This is an amazing feat, considering that women were barred from participating in the Olympics when it first began. It shows not only the hard work that women athletes put in, but also the dedication and sacrifice of all the women who paved the way for them.

Indian athletes proved their mettle by giving exemplary performances at the games and showed that there is nothing that can affect their hard work and resilience. Out of the 127 athletes sent to the Tokyo Olympics by India, 56 athletes were women. India’s total medal tally at the Olympics stood at 7, which made history as being the highest ever India won in a single edition. Out of 7 medals, 3 were won by women. Mirabai Chanu won the Silver Medal in Weight Lifting (Women’s 49kg) and opened the books for Indian athletes for this edition. PV Sindhu bagged a Bronze Medal in Women’s Single Badminton and Lovlina Borgohain won India a Bronze Medal in Women’s Welterweight Boxing.

Indian Women’s Hockey team may not have won a medal at the Olympics but they scripted history at the games by giving their best-ever Olympic performance in Tokyo. Aditi Ashok gave an unbelievably amazing performance and finished 4th in the Women’s Golf final at Tokyo 2020. Ms. CA Bhavani Devi made history by being the first fencer to represent India at the Olympics. This number can be increased if more women, especially women from small towns and villages have access to the sport facilities.

Internationally too, women dominated the games. The U.S. women finished the Games with 66 medals, followed by China. The U.S women’s basketball team claimed its seventh consecutive gold, while the water polo team won its third gold in a row and the volleyball team won its first gold. Allyson Felix in her fifth Olympics claimed bronze in the 400 meters and gold in the 4×400 relay, giving her the 10th and 11th Olympic medals of her career. Weightlifter Hidilyn Diaz became the first Philippine athlete to win an Olympic gold medal. Japan’s women’s basketball team won its first silver medal. Gymnasts from the Russian Olympic Committee won gold in the team event for the first time since 1992.

It is true that not all women athletes who participated in the Tokyo Olympics left with a medal. But all of them left a legacy of hardwork and strength, of sacrifice and overcoming the struggles and breaking the patriarchy which existed in this field to a great extent along with inspiring a generation of young girls to take interest in sports.

08/12/2024 0 comments 27 views

Chhattisgarh marching ahead in promoting Girl’s Education with campaign “Har Kadam Beti Ke Sang”

by Shivangi Sharma 08/12/2024

written by Shivangi Sharma

Shivangi Sharma

COVID-19 pandemic with all its challenges has hit hard on children’s education, especially girls. With persisting gender inequality and increasing poverty, upto 10 million girls are at risk of dropping out of school because of the pandemic. RTE Forum in their policy brief earlier this year notes that with 1.6 million girls aged 11 to 14 years currently out of school, the pandemic could disproportionally impact girls further by putting them at risk of early marriage, early pregnancy, poverty, trafficking and violence. In light of these concerns, Room to Read and International NGO in collaboration with Chhattisgarh government is running a campaign called “Har Kadam Beti ke Sang, Leadership ki Tarang 2021” focused to bring out powerful leadership stories of girls and their families and caregivers to demonstrate resilience and leadership, despite all the challenges that have come and may come.

Room to Read is an International NGO that believes that world change starts with educated children and based on that belief, they collaborate with communities, organisations and governments to develop literacy skills and a habit of reading among primary school children and support girls to complete secondary school with relevant life skills to succeed in schools and beyond. In this national level campaign to improve Girl’s Education, Room to Read has designed an array of life skills materials that has been launched by School Education Minister of Chhattisgarh Dr. Premsai Tekram as a part of the Covid-19 outreach program and commitment towards girls’ education.

“I urge girls to take a vow to study with all their heart, to never let anything stop them, and to become leaders in their communities. Let us come together to help our girls. Har Kadam Beti Ke Sang Leadership Ki Tarang”, said school education minister Dr Premsai Tekam, reported by Times of India.

The campaign has brought to light powerful leadership stories of girls and their families who overcame all the hardships brought by Covid. As reported by Times of India, Geeta, a bright and diligent student of 10th standard, who lost her father to the coronavirus. She always aspired to be a doctor and serve the people in the best of her capacities for which she has always been participative in health related initiatives in her village. The loss that Geeta and her family bore was irreplaceable. Yet, Geeta had to toughen her shoulders to bear the responsibility of her mother and little ones in her family. With time, Geeta and her mother joined the Anganwadi workers to spread awareness about the virus. Geeta and her mother strived hard so that nobody had to bear the loss due to Covid-19. Geeta also started stitching masks and distributing them among children in her village. Besides, she now lives to study and work hard, for herself and for her father, who till his last breath cared about every student’s education as much as he cared about his own daughter’s.

Another such inspiring story is of Chitralekha hailing from a small village in Chhattisgarh. The very day that Chitralekha turned 16, her life saw a downfall from the very moment the mother uttered the words, “marriage”. A myriad of obnoxious feelings took over, her dreams, her aspirations; all of them came crumbling down to nothing. Chitralekha stood tall and with the support of her brother and the R2R India team ensured that the marriage was called off and she continued to pursue her education. This campaign intends to reach out to all vulnerable girls like Chitralekha.

The state-wide campaign is targeted at 15,881 girls residing in 179 government girls’ residential institutions including Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya, Ashram Shalas and Porta Cabins in all the 28 districts under Project Vijayi. Project Vijayi was started by Room to Read in year 2018 with partnership of Education Department and Tribal Welfare Department of State of Chhattisgarh which is a life skill program. In this Project, one Warden and one Teacher from residential institutions got trained and they deliver quality Life Skill Sessions with girls from grade six to eight. In addition, 2,504 girls from 13 non-residential government schools in two districts Raipur and Dhamtari will get benefitted from various online reading materials, circulars, take care cards and e-magazines. The campaign intends to negate the impact of Covid-19 pandemic that has severely impacted the education system across India especially the lives of young adolescent girls beyond their education too. It intends to empower the girls with education and life skills to help them lead a better life without the fear of being married off or making them vulnerable to poverty.

08/12/2024 0 comments 41 views

Tribulation Of Innocent Hands

by Guest Author 08/12/2024

written by Guest Author

By Advocate Meenu Padha; Co- Authors – Tavleen Kaur & Vinayak Sonkar

India needs an instant nationwide awareness and campaigns against the child labour to protect and safeguard children from the economic and social consequences which has been faced due to Covid-19 crisis and lockdowns. Although some of us are practicing social distancing and actively working from home in the hope of a much better tomorrow, there are still a large number of children who may be victims of seemingly positive measures. One effect is the increase in the number of child labour. For many children, the Covid-19 crisis means little or no education due to poverty or less means of technology which will ultimately lead them to lag behind their peers. This will prompt a large number of children to stop learning even after we return to “normalcy” post COVID. Many children who are not in school will embroil themselves in child labour. In the two waves of Covid-19 in India, lakhs of men and women, many of whom did not have stable jobs and depended on daily wages, became unemployed or faced low income which had a spiralling effect on their children. Due to lockdown, the schools are unable to run physically and only a few people can access or receive online education. In the first wave of Covid19 in 2020, more than three-fourth of children did not have access to online learning facility and more than half of the children did not have access to any learning materials. The increasing anxiety of parents, shortage of learning material, low income and non-access to online education, all together has led to an increase in child labour.

The epidemic is clearly appearing to be a child rights crisis, which is increasing the risk of child labour, because more families are falling into extreme poverty. As stated by the United Nations Organisation, 160 million of child labour cases have increased to 8.4 million over the consecutive four years and Covid-19 has been a major contributor to this. Children from poor and disadvantaged families in India are now at a greater risk such as dropping out of school and being forced to work. Lakhs of families in emerging and developing countries are employed as daily workers in the informal sector (rickshaw drivers, construction workers, street vendors, workers in small factories, etc.). In particular, they have lost revenue due to the overwhelming effects of the global lockdown and the pandemic. The sharp decline in income means that families cannot afford basic necessities or money for children’s health care or education. In the formal sector as well, factory closures in countless countries have led to massive layoffs and loss of income, with major consequences being faced by lakhs of workers and their families. As adults are at a higher risk of contracting the coronavirus than children, the ultimate pressure is increasing upon children specially in poor families, to take the whole responsibility of family and bridge the gap of basic necessity. Since the production base is still looking for the cheapest labour, children are considered to be a very cheap option for such labours and work to meet their demands. Even before the epidemic, the figures for child labour in India were dismal. According to the Census 2011 statistics, the overall number of child labourers in India between the ages of 5 and 14 is 4.35 million (major workers) and 5.76 million (marginal workers), for a total of 10.11 million. Furthermore, there are 22.87 million teenage labourers in India, bringing the total (in the age bracket of 5-18 years) to about 33 million.

In addition to child labour, there are myriad facets of this problem which both result from child labour and also contribute to it. As per the National Crime Records Bureau, in India, one child disappears every eight minutes. India also has the highest child trafficking cases. Children are sometimes removed from their homes to be purchased and sold in the market. In other situations, youngsters are duped into falling into the hands of traffickers by being offered a job, only to be enslaved upon arrival. There are many children trafficked for a variety of causes, including work, begging, and sexual exploitation. Because of the nature of this crime, it is both difficult to trace these children and also prevent their exploitation effectively due to weak law enforcement. While we have an estimate of the issue, understanding its exact scope, and getting ascertainable numbers is very hard. Though the majority of child trafficking happens within the nation, a considerable number of children are trafficked from Nepal and Bangladesh.

Child trafficking is caused by a variety of factors, the most common of which are poverty, ineffective law enforcement, and a lack of high-quality public education. The traffickers that take advantage of children can be from another area in India, or could even know the child personally. Children who return home after being trafficked are typically shunned by their communities rather than welcomed. Poverty, a lack of education, and the need to financially support their family are some of the core causes of child trafficking in India. India’s unemployment rate is quite high, with the United Nations Development Programme estimating it to be 3.5 percent. Furthermore, there aren’t a lot of income opportunities. When youngsters are given the opportunity to labour, they are more likely to be exploited. Children in poverty are frequently compelled to trade sex in exchange for a place to live or food to eat. Some parents have even been compelled to sell their children to traffickers in order to get out of poverty or pay off debts. Gangs frequently traffic children and compel them to beg on the streets. Contemporary cases of begging can be seen in most of the metropolises. Not only are these children being forced to beg for money, but a significant number of those on the streets have had gang leaders forcefully remove their limbs or even pour acid into their eyes to blind them. Those children who are injured tend to make more money by invoking the empathy of the people, which is why they are often abused in this way. Organ trafficking is also widespread, with traffickers tricking or forcing minors to give up their organs.

As per UNICEF, over 300,000 children under the age of 18 are presently being exploited in more than 30 violent situations throughout the world. While the bulk of child soldiers are aged 15 to 18, some are as young as 7 or 8 years old. A huge number of youngsters are kidnapped and forced to serve as soldiers. Others work as porters, chefs, guards, servants, messengers, and spies. Many of these young soldiers have been sexually assaulted, which frequently results in unplanned pregnancies and sexually transmitted illnesses. Some youngsters have been coerced into carrying out crimes against their families and communities. A lot of children are also made to steal, snatch, kill with a mindset that it is an essential for their living .

Currently, 152 million youngsters, 64 million girls and 88 million boys, labour across the world. This represents nearly one-tenth of all children worldwide. There are about 10 million youngsters in India who are actively engaged in or pursuing employment. Despite considerable attempts done in recent years by the UN, ILO, and individual nations like India, this remains the case. Failure to minimize the number of minors exploited in job circumstances is due to the socio-cultural fabric that allows it to happen and condones the offence, as well as the enormous demand for inexpensive child labour in agricultural, mining, carpet-weaving, garment, brick kiln, and other sectors, as well as the pervasive poverty that continues to be both a cause and a function of child labour.

Selling of minor girls for prostitution is a big subject of concern. These minor girls are syndicated to enormous abuses one cannot even imagine. They are molested, harassed, raped, exploited, stalked, beaten and many more injuries are caused to those small teeny bodies which are sabotaged with cigars, burns, wounds and blood through their legs. While they feel the pain in the earlier years, in later years, girls come to accept it as their fate.

They perceive it as a way of living and consider sexual abuse as a necessary exchange for drugs, food, shelter, protection and other basics of life. Children who are exploited for commercial sex are subjected to child pornography and child prostitution transactions. Commercial sexual exploitation (CSE) of women and children earns around $400 million USD each year in Mumbai alone. According to the Ministry of Women and Child Development (MWCD), there are around three million prostitutes in the nation, with an estimated 40% of them being youngsters, since there is an increasing desire for extremely young girls to be initiated into prostitution according to customer preferences. Sexual exploitation has many serious implications for these youngsters.

Now the main question which comes up every now and then is – Will the government and general public take strong steps to prevent the abuse of the children and stop child labour and child trafficking?

On a national level, human trafficking is expressly prohibited in Article 23 of the Indian Constitution. To combat the issue of child trafficking, the Indian government has also passed further legislation and modified the Indian Penal Code (IPC). The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act of 1986 (ITPA) amends the Suppression of Immoral Traffic in Women and Girls Act of 1956. (SITA). Human trafficking for prostitution was deemed illegal by SITA, and legal action was detailed for anybody participating in human trafficking in any capacity. ITPA made laws friendlier towards the victim. ITPA also created a system to rehabilitate victims of trafficking and prevent them from bring trafficked again. In 2013, IPC was amended to create new provisions to address Trafficking in India that is more in accordance with the United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Particularly Women and Children. State governments have also been observed taking steps to combat child trafficking by attempting to create systems and regulations at the state level. Non-governmental organisations that strive to solve various parts of this issue fill up any gaps in the execution of plans and regulations.

Although India is regarded as a centre for human trafficking, the Indian government places little emphasis on the issue. Hence the way in which the current legal system operates to address child labour in India can be considered as coming into direct conflict with the trend of independent child migration that is seen across the country. Therefore, legal measures are not enough. Every person needs to understand the gravity of this issue, make themselves aware, and keep their eyes and minds open, to help the government where ever possible in tracking the cases of child labour and preventing it.

08/12/2024 0 comments 25 views

Dereliction Of The ‘Other Gender’: Deprivation Of Minor Male Sexual Assault Victims By The ‘Skin-Touch’ Doctrine

by Guest Author 08/12/2024

written by Guest Author

By Sayan Dasgupta

COVID-19 has been a fertile spawning field of sexual violence. Where some Courts have been deontological and acknowledging of this phenomenon, certain judgments act as a means of disenfranchisement of sexual violence victims. Bombay High Court in a recent judgment, in Satish v. State of Maharashtra has rendered an absurd interpretation of Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012 [POCSO]. The accused was charged with Section 8 of POCSO read with Section 354 of Indian Penal Code along with Sections 342 and 363, for sexually assaulting a minor girl. The Bench acquitted the accused of sexual assault under POCSO while upholding conviction under the sexual assault charges under IPC on the rationale that there was lack of sexual intention on the part of accused to sexually assault the minor since there “was no direct physical contact, i.e., skin to skin” touch.

This verdict caused a huge uproar in the civil society and the legal fraternity alike causing the Supreme Court to stay the acquittal of the accused on the charge of Section 8 of POCSO. The judgment has rendered that mere groping would not amount to sexual assault under Section 7 of POCSO. Such an abhorrent interpretation prima facie trivializes not only sexual assault of female minors, but disproportionately excludes male minors from seeking justice.

The minor male victims of sexual abuse constitute a large majority in India. The Bench elucidated that mere groping over the clothes of the minor would not amount to sexual assault under Section 7 and 8 of POCSO. POCSO is inherently a gender-neutral legislation providing reprieve to minors of all genders. Section 7 provides that “whoever, with sexual intent touches the vagina, penis, anus or breast of the child or makes the child touch the vagina, penis, anus or breast of such person or any other person, or does any other act with sexual intent which involves physical contact without penetration is said to commit sexual assault.” The words “penis, anus” annotate protection to the male victims from sexual assault. However, the case establishing the ‘skin-touch’ doctrine has significantly narrowed the scope of application of the provision.

Adoption of this exclusionary doctrine would impact both female and male victims adversely, however, where the female victim could resort to relevant provisions of IPC, the male victim is left remediless. The provisions of sexual crimes under IPC are highly gendered protecting only the woman or the girl child disenfranchising the male victims of sexual violence. Furthermore, the doctrine places the onus of proof on the prosecution per contra to POCSO. Section 29 of POCSO reverses the burden of proof and presumes the offence has been committed or abetted by the accused. If the view purported by the Bombay High Court is considered, and if the prosecution fails to satisfy the onus, the female victim can have a recourse to relevant provisions of IPC, whereas on the contrary, the male victim cannot.

The ‘skin-touch’ doctrine categorically contradicts the Model Guidelines issued by Ministry of Women and Child Development under Section 39 of POCSO which provides that “almost every known form of sexual abuse against children as punishable”. Furthermore, the Delhi High Court in Rakesh v. State without even delving into the detail of disrobing of the victim dismissed the appeal holding that mere groping of the private parts of the victim with sexual intent amounts to sexual assault under Section 7 of POCSO. Conflicting this accurate interpretation, the heavy onus placed on the victim results in narrow application. Whereupon the female victims have an alternative remedy, the abusers of the male victim are left scot-free on committing the atrocity leaving a permanent scar on the well-being of the child survivor. Ergo, mere groping would amount to sexual assault of the female victim under Section 354 of IPC but would not be sexual assault of male victim, either under POCSO or IPC. The provisions governing sexual crimes in IPC are gynocentric and neither the legislative or the judiciary have displayed any intention to take affirmative step on making the sexual offences gender neutral, despite there being categorical recommendation by the 172^nd Law Commission Report and the Justice Verma Committee Report to make rape and other sexual offences gender neutral.

This inspires little to no confidence on the state functionaries with regard to gender justice. The ‘skin-touch’ doctrine creates a very real and alienating affect of male survivors wherein, groping over clothes would not amount to sexual assault. The lack of gender-neutral sexual offence laws and such interpretation is a clear dereliction of the male survivors.

08/12/2024 0 comments 27 views

Medi-Robo – A Patna girl’s innovation to help doctors fight Covid-19

by Srinivas Rayappa 08/12/2024

written by Srinivas Rayappa

Akanksha Kumari, a 22 year old girl from Patna has built a robot which shall act as a bridge between doctors and patients suffering from infectious diseases. This device helps maintain the necessary physical distance, which has been necessitated by the rampant spread of the Covid virus. Doctors and paramedic staff can administer care to the patients without the fear of contracting the disease themselves.

An undergraduate student of Electronics Engineering from BIT Durg(Chhattisgarh), Akanksha designed the software to control the robot while her father ably supported her with the hardware. Deeply moved by number of deaths and the innumberable problems faced by doctors in attending to the patients, Akanksha began to develop this unique product. The total investment for developing this robot was an estimated Rs. 1 Lakh.

Akanksha has demonstrated the robot before the Union IT and Law Minister Dr. Ravi Shankar Prasad and has persuaded both the state and central governments to allow the use of the product by Healthcare professionals and workers. Since the robot enables doctors to monitor the patient vitals in real-time and from a safe distance, she firmly believes that the stigma attached to the fear of contagion could be eliminated.

Thus far, Medi_robo has been successfully tested at three private hospitals in Patna and the results have been largely satisfactory. The robot also has been equipped to facilitate transportation of medicines, food, water, oxygen, and other medical equipment. The robot comes equipped with a 360-degree high-resolution night vision surveillance camera.

While the whole country is being engulfed by this pandemic, efforts of young, dynamic and innovative engineering students like Akanksha are indeed laudable.

08/12/2024 0 comments 34 views

Covid-19: The pivotal role of Women in the Healthcare Sector

by Srinivas Rayappa 08/12/2024

written by Srinivas Rayappa

A lot has been discussed and debated about the negative impacts of the Covid-19 pandemic on women but the contribution of women in fighting the pandemic has found very sparing mention. This is despite the fact that women health workers are the beating heart of every healthcare system which is aiding the recovery of Covid patients across the globe.

For several decades, women have played a vital role in the global healthcare workforce as nurses, midwives, community health workers and doctors. In some countries 90% of nurses are women. Although women are still less likely than men to reach senior positions in healthcare professions, recent data shows a trend reversal which ignites some confidence of rising gender parity in the Healthcare sector.

It is heartwarming to note that women represent close to 70% of the global healthcare workforce. Several studies estimate that women in health contribute 5% to global gross domestic product (GDP) (US$ 3 trillion) annually, out of which almost 50% is unrecognized and unpaid.

In 2017, almost half of all doctors in Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries were women. Thirteen OECD countries exceeded gender parity for doctors in 2017, including Slovenia (63.0%), the Lithuania (69.4%), Estonia (74.0%), and Latvia (74.3%). France (44.5%), Germany (46.6%), the United Kingdom (47.6%), and Sweden (48.0%) were nearing gender parity among physicians. However, women still only made up one in five (21.0%) doctors in Japan. Globally, women represent the majority of nurses and midwives. The Americas (86%), Europe (84%), and the Western Pacific (81%) are regions with the highest proportion of women among nurses.

In Canada, women dominate the health fields in Higher Education. In 2017, women made up more than 78.7% of post-secondary graduates in health and related fields. In the past four decades, women’s share of medical degrees has substantially increased. In contrast to 2017, when only 12% of women earned MD degrees in Canada, there has been a significant spike until 2018 with 54.5% of women achieving the same feat.

In India, women are responsible for 70-80% of all the healthcare services being provided. Women healthcare providers can play an important role in educating society to recognize their health and nutrition needs. Women professionals and empowerment of women at all levels are required for improvement of the health and nutrition structure in India.

In terms of Gender Career Satisfaction, on average, women in healthcare report high satisfaction with their careers (75 percent versus 71 percent of men). They find opportunities aligned with their passions and can adapt their careers over time. Women in healthcare tend to be more happier about their careers compared with men in the same field.

Largely, the gender gap in promotion rates in healthcare, unlike in many other industries, is narrowing. Both women and men report asking for raises at the same rates, but women in healthcare say they are slightly more successful in achieving positive outcomes. Women in healthcare reported receiving more of what they requested in compensation negotiations more often than what men did. Both women and men report asking for raises at the same rates, but women in healthcare say they are slightly more successful in achieving positive outcomes. Women in healthcare reported receiving more of what they requested in compensation negotiations more often than what men did.

According to a research done collaboratively by Lean In and McKinsey, healthcare appears to be one of the best industries for working women on several counts. A broad industry that includes drug and medical-device manufacturers, as well as service providers and payers, healthcare surpasses other industries in female representation.

On the flip side, it is an uncomfortable fact that health systems are currently subsidized by the unpaid work done by women and girls delivering care to family and others in their communities. If only women were able to participate in the economy equally, it would result in nearly an estimated $160 trillion increase in global GDP or a 21.7% increase in human capital wealth.

24 million of the 28.5 million nurses and midwives globally are women. Men, on the other hand, are more likely to be physicians and specialists than women. In addition, more men reach leadership positions, leaving women under-represented in senior, higher-paid roles. However, recent studies reveal an increasing participation of women in highly paid occupations in health, a trend likely to continue over the next 20 years.

The report “Delivered by women, led by men: A gender and equity analysis of the global health and social workforce”, co-produced by WHO and Women in Global Health, confirms that women health workers are concentrated into lower status, lower paid and often, unpaid roles, facing harsh realities of gender bias and harassment.

It is unfortunate that women lead only 19% of hospitals. When it comes to companies in the healthcare industry, women only hold 13% of CEO roles and 33% of senior leadership positions. However, despite all the roadblocks, some women have made to the top of the ladder with their talent, remarkable contributions and sustained efforts. Some noteworthy names include Emma Walmsley (CEO of GlaxoSmithKline and the first woman to lead a global pharma company), Gail K. Boudreaux (president and CEO of Anthem), and Laura N. Dietch (president and CEO of BioTrace). Frances H. Arnold, who in 2018 became the fifth woman to win the Nobel Prize in Chemistry is yet another example of women in healthcare who have gained worldwide recognition for her achievements. Women are the primary consumers and decision makers in the healthcare market, and they make up almost 50 percent of the workforce: much of their advancement and leadership in the field rests on those facts.

Since women work in the frontline in providing medical care and perform some of the risky jobs, they have an increased risk of contracting infectious diseases. In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control reports that, as of April 2020, 73% of healthcare professionals who tested positive for COVID-19 were women. Exposure to infectious diseases poses a high psychological burden for women healthcare workers. A study of healthcare settings in China during the COVID-19 outbreak found that women workers reported elevated levels of stress, anxiety, and depression.

Despite all the risks taken by women, disparity continues to pervade the industry when it comes to monetary compensation. Women in healthcare are paid Less, on average, than their male counterparts. Women physicians and surgeons made $0.67 to every $1 earned by their male counterparts in 2018. Women in healthcare support occupations, which include home health aides and nursing assistants, made $0.83 for every $1 their male counterparts made in 2018.

Gender equality needs to be looked at holistically in the healthcare sector – Policies, effectiveness of programs initiated by the government, and employee experiences must be taken into consideration to promote diversity and inclusion. While the trends clearly show that significant progress has been made over the last few decades, much remains to be done.

08/12/2024 0 comments 23 views

Girl’s Education one of the smartest investment to prevent pandemic ‘Lost Generation’, UK Prime Minister Boris Johnson

by Shivangi Sharma 08/12/2024

written by Shivangi Sharma

Boris Johnson, Prime Minister of United Kingdom is all set to promote access to education for girls in Kenya, calling it “is one of the smartest investments we can make”. Since his time as Foreign Secretary, Mr Johnson has argued that widening access for education for girls is a highly-effective way of driving development in some of world’s poorest countries, in places where girls had often been at risk of missing out on school. The PM will participate in a live study hall connect-up with schoolchildren in Kenya on march 13, 2021 to encourage world pioneers to put resources into training, supporting the UK’s aspiration to get 40 million additional young ladies into school in the following five years.

He is scheduled to visit a school in the UK with Julia Gillard, previous Australian PM and Seat of the Worldwide Organization for Training, and address President Uhuru Kenyatta at a school in Nairobi as a component of the Associating Homerooms program. This visit comes ahead of the joint UK-Kenya Global Education Summit in London in July, which aims to raise $5 Billion over the next five years for the vial work of Global Partnership for Education (GPE).

The UK reports £55 million for another program to drive essential research into education reforms, , turbocharging endeavours to get young ladies into school and learning. The What Works Hub for Global Education will advise governments across Africa and Asia on the most impactful and financially savvy approaches to reform educational systems and support female enrolment.

UK’s G7 Presidency has a key part in improving girl’s access to education and is at the heart of global efforts to build back better from the pandemic. Putting resources into schooling helps lift communities out of poverty and shields young girls from early marriage and forced labour.

Prime Minister Johnson said:

“Supporting girls to get 12 years of quality education is one of the smartest investments we can make as the world recovers from Covid-19. Otherwise we risk creating a lost pandemic generation. Across the world there is a vast untapped resource – girls whose education has been cut short or denied altogether, who could be leading efforts to pull their communities out of poverty. I’m going to be working throughout the UK’s G7 presidency to ensure leaders invest in those girls and boost children’s life chances around the world.”

Julia Gillard, Chair of the GPE, said:

“COVID-19 has worsened the global education crisis and hit children in lower-income countries the hardest, with life-changing consequences for millions. Now, we are at a decisive junction. When the world builds back from the pandemic, ensuring that every girl and boy has the opportunity for a quality education is the single best investment we can make for a more sustainable, peaceful and resilient future.”

The Covid-19 pandemic has caused an unprecedented worldwide educational crisis, with 1.6 billion youngsters out of education all around the world at the height of school terminations. It has additionally intensified the hindrances to tutoring that young girls as of now face, including poverty, gender-based violence and child-marriage.

The Global Education Summit this July, co-hosted by the United Kingdom and Kenya, is a critical opportunity to fully fund the Global Partnership for Education and help transform education systems to make them more equitable and effective.

08/12/2024 0 comments 25 views

The Impact of Covid-19 on Sexual and Reproductive Health of Women

by Srinivas Rayappa 08/12/2024

written by Srinivas Rayappa

“They slipped briskly into an intimacy from which they never recovered” – F. Scott Fitzgerald

The Covid-19 pandemic and the lockdowns which followed thereafter, has essentially led to several partners being quarantined at home. While this has been a wonderful time for cohabiting couples to connect with each other, several questions have been raised with regards to the safety of this intimacy.

Veering between social distancing and close cohabitation, many thousands of couples are rediscovering each other as cities and towns across the country go into lockdown. However, with this increased intimacy, many pharmacies as well as e-commerce sites have reported rising sales of condoms and contraceptive pills. While social media is abuzz with jokes and memes, some experts are concerned about the impact this could have on the sexual and reproductive health of women. During the initial days of the pandemic, the spike in sales of condoms and contraceptives were attributed to hoarding, dispelling the myth that couples were getting more intimate. Eventually, there was a marginal dip in sales but the lack of free movement of goods globally, has led to severe shortage of condoms and contraceptives. There is a real risk and grave threat that some of the supply chains are going to be broken and that there might be more stockouts and shortages in the months ahead.

According to a recent report by United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), the number of women unable to access contraception, experiencing unintended pregnancies and facing gender-based violence has skyrocketed as the COVID-19 pandemic continues.

“This new data shows the catastrophic impact that COVID-19 could soon have on women and girls globally,” Dr. Natalia Kanem, UNFPA Executive Director said in a press release. “The pandemic is deepening inequalities, and millions more women and girls now risk losing the ability to plan their families and protect their bodies and their health.”

The data released by UNFPA, the UN’s sexual and reproductive health agency, predicts that over 47 million women could lose access to contraception, resulting in 7 million unplanned pregnancies if the lockdown continues for six months.
The World Health Organization this month said two-thirds of 103 countries surveyed between mid-May and early July reported disruptions to family planning and contraception services.

Unintended pregnancies can occur among women of all incomes, educational levels, and ages. Negative outcomes associated with unintended pregnancy include delays in initiating prenatal care, reduced likelihood of breastfeeding and increased risk of maternal depression and parenting stress.
A surge in teen pregnancies was reported in Kenya, while some young women in Nairobi’s Kibera slum resorted to using broken glass, sticks and pens to try to abort pregnancies, said Diana Kihima with the Women Promotion Center. Two died of their injuries, while some can no longer conceive.
Due to limited availability of surgical abortion services, particularly in rural areas, and barriers on availability of medical abortion drugs at chemists, many women may be forced to resort to unsafe providers, risking their health and lives during the lockdown period.

In parts of West Africa, the provision of some contraceptives fell by nearly 50 percent compared to the same period last year, said the International Planned Parenthood Federation.
“I’ve never seen anything like this apart from countries in conflict,” said Diana Moreka, a coordinator of the MAMA Network that connects women and girls to care across 16 African countries. Calls have increased to their hotlines, including those launched since the pandemic began in Congo, Zambia and Cameroon. More than 20,000 women have called since January.

The Women’s Health forecast has published some alarming statistics: There has been a 10% drop in Reproductive Healthcare. 49 million more women do not access to contraception which could lead to 15 million more unintended pregnancies, 168000 more newborn deaths, 28,000 more maternal deaths and 3 million more unsafe abortions.

Family Planning efforts has been upended by the Coronavirus pandemic. Health experts fear irreparable harm has been done to India’s already struggling family planning efforts. Many women are no longer receiving potentially life-saving services that can help them make informed choices about delaying, preventing, and spacing pregnancies. V.S. Chandrashekar, Chief Executive Officer at the Foundation for Reproductive Health Services India (FRHS), said, “Live births may actually be higher since access to abortion is impacted during the lockdown. Women with unintended pregnancy may be forced to carry their pregnancy to term, since they may not have access to abortion care.”
In the Indian context, an analysis of HMIS data by Population Foundation of India shows that during the months of national lockdown last year between April and June, compared to the same period in 2019, there was a 27% drop in pregnant women receiving four or more ante-natal check-ups, a 28% decline in institutional deliveries and 22% decline in prenatal services.

The failure of the health system to cope with COVID-19 pandemic resulted in an increase in maternal deaths and stillbirths, according to a study published in The Lancet Global Health Journal. The impact on pregnancy outcomes high on poorer countries, says the study. Overall, there was a 28% increase in the odds of stillbirth, and the risk of mothers dying during pregnancy or childbirth increased by about one-third. There was also a rise in maternal depression, impacting the child’s health. COVID-19 impact on pregnancy outcomes was disproportionately high on poorer countries, according to the study published.

Many routine and elective services have already been postponed or suspended by both Government and private setups in most parts of the world because of the unprecedented pandemic of COVID-19. Healthcare systems everywhere in the world are under pressure. Being a component of essential health services, family planning and abortion services should continue to cater the population in order to prevent the complications arising from unintended pregnancies and sudden rise in STIs.

When health systems are overwhelmed, countries need to make difficult decisions to balance the demands of responding directly to COVID-19, while simultaneously engaging in strategic planning and coordinated action to maintain essential health service delivery. The provision of many services will become more challenging. Women’s choices and rights to sexual and reproductive health care, however, should be respected regardless of COVID-19 status.

While the lockdowns imposed across the globe due to the Covid-19 pandemic has caused immeasurable damage to mankind, the the differential impact it has had on the sexual and reproductive health of women needs immediate attention. The “Baby Boom” in the United States should be a gentle reminder of the potential problems which might arise if sufficient attention is not paid to the sexual and reproductive health of women. The coming year may well bring a baby boom few can afford, along with a dangerous increase in unsafe abortions. It’s high time the world took note and made necessary amends.

08/12/2024 0 comments 24 views

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